By Cathy Andrade, NHL Skating Consultant – Professional Development Coach, and Dr. Kevin Vandi, DPT, CSCS, Sports Biomechanics Specialist
Does arm swing affect skating speed and biomechanics?
Should the arms swing forward and backward or side-to-side to generate the most force and skating speed?
How should hockey players train their arm swing for optimal performance?
These are heavily debated topics in hockey skating biomechanics, and since hockey skating is a complex motion, it can get confusing to determine what arm swing is best for performance. While most coaching education focuses on the lower body, the upper body, particularly arm swing, is an influential yet often misunderstood contributor to skating speed and efficiency.
According to Cathy Andrade, NHL San Jose Sharks Skating Consultant and founder of Power Hour Hockey, who has over 40 years of coaching and more than 50,000 lessons taught from youth to pro-level skaters:
“Some players are taught to pump their arms like they’re sprinting…, but skating isn’t running. When the arms don’t match the push, you “leak speed.”
In hockey, coaches continue to debate whether the arms should swing forward and backward, as in sprinting, or move laterally in coordination with the push of the skate.
A growing body of research and on-ice observations suggests that arm-swing mechanics directly influence ground reaction forces, skating velocity, and movement efficiency. When arm swing is aligned with lower-body biomechanics, it increases the magnitude and direction of force production, thereby improving skating performance.
This article synthesizes the available literature on skating mechanics with new insights from controlled force-plate research to provide a unified explanation of how arm swing contributes to speed in hockey.
Understanding the Biomechanical Context of Skating
Skating is unique among locomotion tasks because forward motion is generated through lateral force production. Lateral force production is an essential part of skating mechanics because it relies on the inside edge of the skate to push into the ice and generate force. This motion requires the kinematic coordination of hip abduction, extension, and external rotation. Running, on the other hand, doesn’t require edges for propulsion and therefore can use a front-to-back force production.
Because the leg is pushing essentially to the side, the body also moves in a subtle oscillation from side to side. This lateral displacement is a defining feature of hockey acceleration and maximal-speed mechanics. Elite skaters exhibit greater lateral excursion, a more forceful sideways push, and greater trunk and shoulder rotation relative to minor skaters. These adaptations optimize the direction and magnitude of ground reaction forces to maximize speed.
Research supports this. Faster skaters demonstrate deeper trunk flexion, greater hip flexion before push off, and increased rotational coupling through the trunk and shoulders. These positional strategies lengthen the effective range of motion of the hip extensors and abductors, increasing the time and space available to generate propulsive force.
These lower-body mechanics create the conditions in which arm swing can meaningfully influence skating performance.
Arm Swing in Running vs. Skating: Why the Difference Matters
Many hockey coaches teach athletes to swing their arms in a forward–backward pattern similar to sprinting. This pattern of swing makes intuitive sense because, in running, sagittal plane arm drive improves forward propulsion. The arm swing increases vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces by generating a downward load and modulating trunk rotation.
However, the same motion in skating does not match the direction of lower-body force production. The legs are not pushing backward. They are pushing sideways. A forward–backward arm pattern creates momentum in a direction that does not complement the biomechanics of the stride.
Detailed motion analysis shows that the shoulder joint in effective skating undergoes abduction and adduction to match the hip’s lateral motion during push off. When the right skate pushes out to the right, the left arm abducts outward to the left. When the left skate pushes out to the left, the right arm abducts outward to the right. This cross-body opposition increases the lateral ground reaction forces on the skate blade and helps stabilize trunk rotation around the vertical axis.
In contrast, arm flexion and extension in the sagittal plane work against the natural rhythm of the stride and can interfere with the timing and coordination of hip abduction and extension. Multiple researchers note that many skaters cannot effectively execute a sagittal-plane arm pattern at speed because the mechanical demands of skating force the arms laterally.
The research by Alexander and colleagues provides a clear theoretical framework: optimal arm action in skating should occur in the frontal plane, not the sagittal plane, to maximize force application through the blade and onto the ice.
Evidence From Ground Reaction Force Studies
Hockey biomechanics research has studied two distinct arm-swing motions in relation to force production, skating efficiency, and skating speed. Two specific arm swing patterns have been studied. A forward-backward arm swing and a side-to-side arm swing.
Elite female hockey players stood on a force platform and performed each arm swing style while maintaining positions similar to a skating stance. The force plate captured peak ground reaction forces in both the frontal (side-to-side) and sagittal (forward–backward) planes. Here are the key findings from this study.
1. The mediolateral arm swing produced 37 percent greater frontal-plane ground reaction forces compared to the forward–backward swing.
This is the most critical finding because lateral ground reaction forces dominate propulsion during skating. The fact that sideways arm swing increases force in the exact direction the skate must push makes it a more mechanically valid strategy.
2. The mediolateral arm swing produced 33 percent less sagittal-plane force, an expected and irrelevant decrease because sagittal force does not contribute meaningfully to skating propulsion.
3. Both techniques generated similar total resultant force magnitudes, but the direction of the resultant force differed significantly.
The side-to-side arm swing produced a resultant force angle of 44 degrees, which closely matches the ideal skate push angle of roughly 45 degrees. The forward-backward arm swing generated only 31 degrees, indicating less horizontal force production.
4. The mediolateral swing exhibited significantly larger ranges of motion in shoulder abduction and adduction as well as higher angular velocity in these frontal-plane movements.
These findings suggest that skaters not only produce more useful force but do so with a more natural and efficient motor pattern. These findings directly support the argument that arm swing should reinforce, not conflict with, the direction of propulsion generated by the legs.
The study concludes that the mediolateral arm swing more closely mimics actual skating mechanics and is therefore recommended for maximizing skating speed and efficiency.
Why Sideways Arm Swing Enhances Propulsion
The biomechanical explanation for why sideways arm swing improves skating speed is grounded in Newton’s laws of motion. According to the law of action and reaction, any force generated by the arms is transmitted down the kinetic chain into the skate. When the arms swing laterally, the shoulders exert an inward force on the trunk and pelvis, which is transmitted downward and outward through the supporting hip and into the skate blade.
This increases the lateral ground-reaction force the blade exerts on the ice. The ice responds with an equal and opposite reaction, propelling the athlete diagonally forward.
A larger, faster, and wider arm swing magnifies this effect by increasing both the impulse (force multiplied by time) and the alignment of the produced force with the intended direction of movement.
Put simply, lateral arm action helps the skater:
- Generate more sideways force
- Enhance trunk counter-rotation
- Stabilize balance during lateral weight shift
- Match the timing of leg extension and abduction
- Create a more powerful push off at the blade
This integrated pattern becomes even more critical at maximal speed, where stride frequency decreases, and stride length and force production dominate performance.
Photo: Dean Tait / Sport Shots. AHL San Jose Barracuda. NHL San Jose Sharks
The Role of Fascial Slings in Lateral Arm Swing and Skating Power
Researchers have uncovered a deeper explanation for why the body naturally organizes toward a lateral arm swing in skating: it lies in the anatomy of the myofascial slings. These interconnected systems of muscle and fascia distribute force across the body, store elastic energy, and stabilize the trunk and pelvis during high-velocity movement.
Understanding how these slings behave clarifies why lateral arm action produces more effective skating mechanics than a front-to-back pattern.
1. The Posterior Oblique Sling and Its Connection to Lateral Arm Drive
The posterior oblique sling links the latissimus dorsi on one side of the body to the gluteus maximus on the opposite side through the thoracolumbar fascia. This cross-body loop is a key contributor to rotational power, trunk stability, and contralateral force transmission. When the left arm abducts and moves laterally, the left latissimus dorsi lengthens eccentrically and loads the fascia that connects to the right glute. This creates a pre-stretch that enhances force production during the push from the right skate.
A forward–backward arm swing does not generate the same cross-body tension. It loads the sagittal line of the latissimus rather than the diagonal line of the oblique sling. Skating is driven by diagonal and lateral forces, not sagittal ones. Therefore, the arm swing that best engages the posterior oblique sling is the one that mirrors the diagonal push of the skate.
Lateral arm motion also increases trunk rotation in the transverse plane. Rotation in the transverse plane is beneficial in skating because greater trunk rotation allows more elastic energy to accumulate in the fascial sling. When the trunk recoils toward the center during the stride transition, energy stored in the sling contributes to the next push-off. This elastic contribution is small in isolation, but over repeated strides it yields meaningful velocity gains.
2. The Anterior Oblique Sling and the Recovery Phase
The anterior oblique sling links the external oblique, the contralateral internal oblique, and the adductor complex. During recovery, as the pushing leg returns under the body, the opposite arm swings laterally across the oblique line. This sequence helps stabilize pelvic rotation and prevents unwanted sway. The lateral arm swing positions the trunk and pelvis to receive the leg as it returns under the body, improving balance and reducing energy loss during weight transfer.
A sagittal arm swing has poor mechanical resonance with these muscular lines. It does not tension the oblique slings in a way that supports lateral force transfer or rotational control. Skaters using a sagittal arm pattern often show excess trunk bobbing and inconsistent hip alignment during weight transfer.
3. Elastic Energy Storage and Release
Skating speed improves when the body stores elastic energy in the myofascial system and releases it efficiently in the next stride. The fascial slings function like tensioned cables that absorb load when stretched and contribute recoil when released. Lateral arm swing stretches the slings diagonally across the back and pelvis, similar to how a speed skater loads the thoracolumbar fascia while rounding a corner. This allows skaters to create elastic tension that amplifies the power of each leg drive without added metabolic cost.
Sagittal arm swing stores far less elastic energy because skating does not rely on forward propulsion from hip extension alone. The mismatch between sagittal arm motion and lateral leg motion results in poor energy return and is one reason the body naturally defaults to lateral arm movement at higher speeds.
Arm Abduction as a Balance Mechanism Over the Skating Leg
Beyond power production, lateral arm swing is essential for the center of mass to be balanced during forward motion. Efficient and powerful skating requires the skater to accept their full body weight while traveling on a thin blade with minimal friction. Stability depends on aligning the center of mass over the stance hip while managing lateral displacement.
1. Counterbalancing Lateral Weight Shift
During the skating stride, the right leg will push back and outwards while the trunk rotates and shifts to the opposite direction to center over the striding leg. In order to stay balanced during this motion, a lateral swing of the left arm will counterbalance this motion by shifting mass toward the midline. This stabilizing effect helps the skater maintain alignment through the hip, knee, and ankle of the stance leg. The arm becomes a dynamic weight that offsets the centrifugal force generated by the skate’s sideways push.
This counterbalance effect is not possible with a forward–backward swing. Sagittal arm motion moves mass in a direction that does not oppose the lateral momentum of the stride. As a result, the skater is more prone to trunk wobble, reduced edge control, and decreased balance through the stance phase.
2. Enhancing Edge Engagement and Hip Stability
The skating blade requires precise angle control to generate force. The inside edge must be engaged with enough pressure and orientation to produce a strong lateral push. Arm abduction helps position the trunk and pelvis so the hip abductors and external rotators can maintain blade angle throughout the push. By moving the arm outward, the athlete creates a mechanical brace that resists collapsing toward the inside of the stride. Lateral or diagonal arm swing improves force transmission from the hip to the blade.
Skaters who swing their arms forward and backward often show a narrow or unstable trunk position, which reduces their ability to maintain optimal edge angle and decreases the quality of the stride.
3. Reducing Unwanted Transverse Plane Rotation
A lateral arm swing aligns with the rotational mechanics of skating and supports controlled trunk rotation. Lateral arm swing also reduces energy loss, helps maintain a strong line of force from the hip to the skate, and improves the fluidity of the stride. In contrast, sagittal arm swing can introduce unnecessary transverse rotation because the arms must cross the midline to maintain stride rhythm. A forward-to-backward arm swing introduces instability and disrupts the transfer of force to the ice.
Practical Application: Coaching and Training the Optimal Arm Swing
Here’s insight from NHL Skating Consultant Cathy Andrade.
When I transitioned from figure skating to hockey in the early 1990s, the technical depth of skating mechanics was far less understood than it is today. At that time, coaching relied heavily on observation, intuition, and outcome-based judgment. If a player looked smoother, more balanced, and skated faster, the approach was considered effective.
There was no slow-motion video, no readily accessible hockey-specific biomechanics research, and very limited sport-specific education resources. As a result, arm swing and stride mechanics were often taught by analogy to running or by inherited coaching habits rather than by validated skating principles.
Over the course of my coaching career, and particularly with the advancement of hockey-specific biomechanics research, it has become clear that the question is no longer whether arm swing influences skating performance, but why there is still debate around how it should be taught.
Modern sports science confirms what skilled skating has demonstrated for decades. Hockey skating is a lateral force-dominant movement, and arm swing must support that direction of force rather than mimic the front-to-back mechanics of running.
Through collaboration with Dr. Kevin Vandi, whose work focuses on force-plate analysis, trunk–pelvis coupling, and kinetic chain sequencing, we have been able to revisit long-held assumptions and clarify why certain arm swing patterns enhance skating performance while others disrupt stride efficiency.
The following coaching principles integrate applied skating instruction with biomechanical evidence to provide a clear, practical framework for teaching arm swing in hockey.
1. Match Arm Swing to the Direction of the Stride Push
Arm swing must support the skating push, not oppose it.
When coaching the practical approach of arm swing direction, I explain that the right leg pushes laterally away from the body, the right arm moves diagonally across the centerline, finishing in front of the opposite hip. When the left leg pushes, the left arm mirrors this same diagonal pattern.
This is not a large, exaggerated sprint-style arm pump. Instead, the movement is best described as controlled shoulder abduction and adduction occurring primarily in front of the body with a diagonal emphasis. When coordinated correctly, this pattern improves balance over the skating leg, supports effective weight transfer, and enhances upper and lower body coordination.
To initiate understanding and athlete buy-in, I often introduce Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. If the legs are producing force laterally into the ice, the arms must contribute opposing force in the same plane. Forward and backward arm motion does not align with the direction of skating propulsion.
Arm swing should allow a full range of motion and contribute to rotation without becoming excessively wide or disconnected from the trunk. The goal is force support, not exaggerated movement.
Photo: Dean Tait / Sport Shots. AHL San Jose Barracuda. NHL San Jose Sharks
2. Allow Trunk Rotation That Complements Lateral Force
The objective is straightforward. The upper body must support the direction of force created by the legs.
Unlike running, controlled trunk rotation in skating is not a technical flaw: It’s a necessary and natural part of the power sequence. When diagonal-arm motion is present, trunk rotation occurs naturally, allowing longer stride pushes, improved weight transfer, and better alignment over the skating leg.
This is rotation, not excessive twisting. Over-bracing the core or maintaining a rigid upper body forces the lower body to compensate, often leading to unnecessary tension through the hips and abdomen. When the trunk is allowed to move naturally, the system becomes smoother, stronger, and more efficient.
3. Teach Both the How and the Why of Arm Movement
Players must understand not only how to move their arms, but why the movement matters.
I teach athletes a clear movement pathway. As mentioned previously, the arm drives from behind one hip, crosses the centerline, and finishes in front of the opposite hip. This diagonal and frontal-plane pattern promotes effective weight transfer by placing the center of mass over the stride leg and supports longer, more powerful push mechanics through coordinated trunk rotation.
Key technical points include:
- Elbows comfortably bent at approximately 90 degrees
- Arms relaxed rather than rigid
- Movement initiated from the shoulder rather than isolated elbow motion
- Rhythm synchronized with the skating stride
Common arm swing errors include:
- Stiff robotic upper body
- Straight military-style arms
- Hands locked together in front of the body
- Tense elevated high shoulders
- Straight side-by-side “referee” arms
- “Drummer boy” arms (movement only from the elbow)
- Floppy, uncontrolled arm motion
- Hands hanging excessively low
- Overly wide or high lateral swings
- Poor timing and lack of rhythm
- “Pulling a rope” motion
In simple terms, the arms must work with the legs, not against them.
In the fall of 2025, I was asked by a current NHL player to work with him privately on stride mechanics. I filmed his stride from the front and back, and when breaking down his stride mechanics, I noticed his arms were swinging like a sprinter, straight forward and back.
I explained that the arm path should naturally cross the midline to keep the trunk rotating and the stride connected, leading to more natural rotation, better rhythm, and a cleaner match with the push. The player made the adjustment, and within a few reps, his motion went from tight to fluid.
After a few simple but impactful adjustments, he mentioned, “I’ve been feeling tightness in my core. This feels so much better.”
Can pro players still improve their skating? The answer is a resounding yes. The details matter at every level.
Photo: Derek Bahn. AHL San Jose Barracuda. NHL San Jose Sharks
4. Integrate Arm Swing With Stick Handling
Because hockey is played with a stick, arm swing must be trained in both one-handed and two-handed situations.
With two hands on the stick, lateral arm motion is still present but with reduced range. Trunk rotation and shoulder abduction and adduction remain essential for maintaining balance and controlling force direction.
With one hand on the stick, arm motion becomes more fluid, and many players feel the correct pattern most clearly in this context.
Regardless of stick position, the principle remains unchanged. The arms must support the lateral push during skating.
Photo: Dean Tait / Sport Shots. AHL San Jose Barracuda. NHL San Jose Sharks
5. Use Off-Ice Training to Build Rhythm and Coordination
Off-ice training allows players to experience coordination between the legs, trunk, and arms before transferring these patterns onto the ice.
Effective exercises include lateral side-to-side “skater jumps” with coordinated arm swing to reinforce timing, arm–leg opposition, and trunk rotation. Slide board or resisted skate slide drills simulate blade angle, hip abduction, and arm–leg coordination. Medicine ball rotational throws reinforce anterior and posterior oblique sling engagement and cross-body power. Band-resisted arm swing drills develop lateral rhythm without reinforcing forward–back pumping patterns.
These drills help athletes feel how arm swing supports skating mechanics rather than attempting to consciously control movement during high-speed skating.
6. Skating Treadmill and Visual Feedback
When I opened my off-ice training facility, Extra Hour in 2018, the skating treadmill quickly validated the importance of immediate visual feedback. Visual learning remains one of the most effective coaching tools, and progress often accelerates when players can see what they are doing in real time.
By incorporating a mirror in front of the skating treadmill, skaters can visually see the position of their hand in front of their opposing hip, as well as the line from the extended leg toe to the opposing elbow (as illustrated in the photos).
Video Here: https://link.getonform.com/view?id=zwpvLIIh3050JatewlPm
7. The Power of Video
Arm swing is often undertrained because it is assumed to happen naturally. In reality, proper arm swing must be coached with intention.
I regularly use slow-motion video from front, rear, and side views to assess arm mechanics. Key observations include whether the arms move forward and backward or diagonally, whether the upper body is rigid or fluid, whether timing is coordinated or inconsistent, and whether the chest pulls the body out of alignment rather than staying stacked over the glide leg.
Here’s a video example of these skating principles: https://youtu.be/xC74eMY_XtM
When athletes see these patterns, understanding and correction occur rapidly.
Coaching Takeaway
When players learn and feel proper arm swing that occurs in the same plane as the skating push and uses a diagonal and frontal-plane motion, multiple aspects of performance improve simultaneously.
These include upper- and lower-body connection, edge control, balance, weight transfer, push-off power, rhythm, and overall skating speed.
Sample Drills to Establish Effective Arm Swing
Effective drills include:
- Toe-on-a-puck variations that pair lateral stride motion with diagonal arm drive
- Stationary weight-shift drills with coordinated arm motion
- V-stance drills emphasizing chin-over-knee alignment with mirrored arm action
- Moving stride stretch drills that exaggerate a “C-cut” with the blade on the ice to the side while integrating correct arm mechanics.
Final Thoughts
Arm swing is a biomechanical amplifier in hockey skating, not an accessory. The direction and magnitude of ground reaction forces during the skating stride depend on coordinated upper-body mechanics that complement lateral propulsion.
According to Cathy Adrade, “Arm swing isn’t extra, it has to be taught since it’s the connector between the upper body through the blade.”
The research is clear. Side-to-side, mediolateral arm swing increases lateral ground reaction forces, better matches the natural direction of the skating push, improves trunk control, and supports optimal force generation. Forward-backward arm swing, while appropriate for running, does not align with the mechanics of skating and may interfere with efficient propulsion.
For coaches and players seeking to maximize skating speed, the practical takeaway is straightforward: match the arm action to the direction of the leg drive. When the arms move in sync with the sideways push of the skate blade, skaters unlock greater power, balance, and efficiency in every stride.
By integrating this research into coaching, video review, and training progressions, hockey players can improve skating performance and develop a more biomechanically sound foundation for elite movement on the ice.
Photo: Dean Tait / Sport Shots. AHL San Jose Barracuda. NHL San Jose Sharks
Author: Cathy Andrade – NHL San Jose Sharks Skating Consultant – Professional Development Coach
Cathy has spent the last 40 years dedicated to improving the most fundamental part of hockey: skating. Cathy founded Power Hour Hockey(1998) and has taught more than 50,000 lessons to athletes across all levels, from youth to current NHL players. Cathy serves as the San Jose Sharks skating consultant and is a member coach and presenter for both the NHL Coaches Association (NHLCA) and the Female Development Program, as well as The Coaches Site.
www.linkedin.com/in/cathy-andrade-56530b19b/
www.instagram.com/cathyspowerskating/
Author: Kevin Vandi DPT, CSCS
Dr. Kevin Vandi is the founder of Competitive Edge Physical Therapy in San Jose, Santa Clara, and Pleasanton, CA, which specializes in sports biomechanics testing and training.
References Used
1. Alexander, M. J. L., Hayward, J., & Taylor, C. (2010). Arm action in hockey skating: Is it being taught incorrectly?Sport Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Manitoba. Available from: /mnt/data/HockeyArmSwing.pdf
2. Bracko, M. R., Fellingham, G. W., & Lyons, R. D. (1996). Glenohumeral kinematics: A comparison of three techniques during an ice hockey acceleration test. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28(Suppl 5), S55.
3. Hayward-Ellis, J., Alexander, M. J. L., Glazebrook, C. M., & Leiter, J. (2017). Ground reaction forces produced by two different hockey skating arm swing techniques. European Journal of Sport Science, 17(9), 1153–1160. Available from: /mnt/data/ground-reaction-forces-produced-by-two-different-hockey-skating-arm-swing-techniques.pdf
4. Hara, M., Shibayama, A., Arakawa, H., & Fukashiro, S. (2008). Effect of arm swing direction on forward and backward jump performance. Journal of Biomechanics, 41(13), 2806–2815.
5. Hegge, A. M., et al. (2014). The effects of the arm swing on biomechanical and physiological variables in roller ski skating. Journal of Biomechanics, 47(12), 2962–2969.
6. Göpfert, C., Holmberg, H. C., Sperlich, B., & Stöggl, T. (2018). Arm swing during skating at different skiing speeds affects linear momentum. Translational Sports Medicine, 1(3), 138–147.
7. Alexander, M. J. L., & Hayward, J. (2010). Arm movement often poorly taught. SciencePerfo / Hockey Institute. Retrieved from: https://scienceperfo.com or Hockey Institute archives.
8. Hockey Institute. (2010). Power Skating Published Studies Bibliography. Hockey Institute Research Library. https://hockeyinstitute.org/arm-movement-in-skating/
